A Catch-22 : Psi and Explanation

When it comes to evaluating parapsychological phenomena, a Catch-22 situation emerges: if fraud or fluke can’t account for the phenomena, then some other theory must be employed. However, mainstream science will not accept psi until it is explained, yet psi is unlikely to be fully explained until it is incorporated into more inclusive scientific problem-solving. Therefore there is a tension between the apparent evidence for psi and lack of a working explanation for the phenomena. In a paper presented at the 51st Annual Convention of the Parapsychological Association, Dr. Hannah Jenkins of the University of Tansmania focused on the explanatory history of psi in an effort to reduce the tension and resolve the Catch-22 situation.

Dr. Jenkins presented two arguments: the first argument is based on an assessment of the publication of prominent psi literature in relation to the dominance of the covering law theory in philosophy of science during the 1940-1960’s. According to the covering law theory, a (general) law of nature is required for any acceptable scientific explanation. However, putative psi phenomena appear to challenge these laws of nature and are only apparent when all other ‘normal’ explanatory avenues have been ruled out. The situation obtained under the covering law theory cuts psi out of consideration, but according to Dr. Jenkins, a re-evaluation can be legitimately called for on the grounds that covering law theory is out-modeded and that newer explanatory models in the philosophy of science since the 1970’s might be more accommodating.

The second argument is that the limits of science were formed when a substantially different explanatory scheme was assumed. At the time that the modern world view was founded, psi-like events were placed in the supernatural category of explanation. The scope of science at that time was set to deliberately exclude psi-like phenomena because scientific theory was limited by mechanistic explanations. This background still informs the assessment of psi today. In the current world view, psi is relegated to the unexplainable, paranormal (rather than supernatural) category, but it is still considered beyond the scope of science. Dr. Jenkins’ historical account suggests thatif the body of evidence for psi is legitimate,it ispertinent to look at the limits of scientific explanation in order to discover how best to approach explanation of the phenomena as natural.

Summarized by,

Renaud Evrard
University de Rouen, France

Jenkins, H. (2008). A Catch-22 : Psi and Explanation. The Parapsychological Association 51st Annual Convention, Proceedings of Presented Papers, August 13-17, 2008, Winchester, pp. 97-110.

Investigating the 'Happy Schizotype'

Schizotypy is a term that indicates a greater disposition toward schizophrenia. Some argue that rather than being associated with psychosis per se, schizotypy is a personality continuum upon which all people vary. In this model, schizotypy is neutral in terms of mental health, but interacts with risk (e.g. stressful events) and protective variables (e.g. supportive social networks), leading to ‘healthy’ or ‘unhealthy’ outcomes, such as creativity or psychosis. Support for this model of schizotypy comes predominantly from research that has found an association between schizotypy or anomaly-proneness and well-being, and also by the high incidence of anomalous experiences among healthy adults.

Belief in paranormal phenomena has often been associated with schizotypy, as well as poor critical thinking, suggestibility and psychopathology in the research literature. Other work has found that belief in the paranormal has many dimensions, with some aspects relating to mental health and others relating to psychopathology. A profile has emerged of the “happy schizotype,” who appears to be prone to unusual experiences in the absence of psychopathology and evaluates these experiences as pleasant. Happy schizotypes also have higher levels of mental health and well-being than other schizotypal profiles.

A study presented at the 51^st Annual Convention of the Parapsychological Association by Nicola Holt, Christine Simmonds-Moore, and Steve Moore, sought to detail the personality traits that characterize happy schizotypes. 183 participants completed a battery of questionnaires including measures of schizotypy, mental health, belief in the paranormal, creativity, and intelligence. The findings of these researchers supported the notion of a happy schizotype who believes in the paranormal and has subjective paranormal experiences in addition to relatively high well-being. But, further work is required to clearly distinguish the happy schizotype from another profile of paranormal believer associated with low levels of well-being and a schizotypal profile that inludes social withdrawal, impulsive behaviour and cognitive disorganization. Holt and her collaborators also extended previous work by providing evidence for the heightened creativity of happy schizoptypes. No significant differences were found between happy schizotypes and other schizotypal types in intelligence. The researchers suggest that future work should explore what types of anomalous experiences different schizotypes are prone to, and whether these experiences might differ in type or quality.

Summarized by,

Renaud Evrard
University de Rouen, France

Holt, N. J., Simmonds-Moore, C. A., & Moore, S. L. (2008). Benign schizotypy: Investigating differences between clusters of schizotype on paranormal belief, creativity, intelligence and mental health. The Parapsychological Association 51st Annual Convention, Proceedings of Presented Papers, August 13-17, 2008, Winchester, pp. 82-96.

Research Summary: Self-Concept and Body Investment in Out-of-Body Experients

Prior research has found that people who have had out-of-body experiences (OBErs) report higher levels of body dissatisfaction than people who have never had an OBE (non-OBErs). Previous studies of the general public have shown that people with higher levels of body dissatisfaction also tend to score higher on measures of social anxiety. However, this does not appear to be the case for OBErs. A study completed by researchers at the University of Manchester (UK) and published in the European Journal of Parapsychology was designed to investigate this apparent discrepancy.

A total of 59 participants (19 OBErs and 40 non-OBErs) completed questionnaires about their self-concept and psychological investment in their bodies. The researchers hypothesized that OBErs maintain a positive self-concept (meaning that they do not experience higher levels of social anxiety) even though they score higher than non-OBErs on a measure of body dissatisfaction. It was also hypothesized that the higher levels of body dissatisfaction, but absence of social anxiety observed in OBErs might be explained in part by a lower degree of body investment than non-OBErs.

As predicted, OBErs were found to have a more positive self-concept than non-OBErs, but did not differ in regards to body investment. Based upon these findings, the researchers argue that the dissatisfaction expressed by the non-OBErs toward their bodies may reflect aesthetic concerns, while OBErs' responses are more expressive of frustration with the physical constraints of the body.

Murray C.D., Wilde, D. & Fox, J. (2006). Self-concept and body investment in out-of-body experients. European Journal of Parapsychology, 21 (1), 27-37.

Research Summary: The Effects of Traditional Zulu Healing upon a Random Event Generator

Researchers from Three Circles Research (UK) and the University of Zululand (South Africa) presented the results of a field study in a recent issue of the Journal of the Society for Psychical Research. The study investigated how directed mental healing by indigenous healers in South Africa impacted upon the functioning of an Orion random event generator (REG), as the healers attempted to influence the REG's in customary healing environments.

Twenty izangoma (South African indigenous healers who use divination, mediumship, and psychic healing to assist their clients) in good local standing were recruited by an intermediary of the University of Zululand and paid for their participation. In the healing/intention condition, the izangoma were instructed to hold the REG in their hand, focus their intention directly onto the device, and to concentrate on the transference of "intentional healing" onto the REG as they would do with actual clients for five minutes. In the non-intention condition, each participant simply held the device, but did not consciously attend to it for the same amount of time. Each isangoma completed four trials of each condition, which were presented in a randomized order.

A variety of control measures were incorporated. The REG system was sampled in a secluded environment for a number of trials equal to those that the izangoma had completed. Also, to determine potential experimenter effects, those researchers who were involved in hands-on data collection completed a sample of REG trials under the same protocol as the izangoma.

The only condition in which the REG produced a significant anomaly was the izangomas’ healing/intention condition, thus confirming the experimental hypothesis. These results suggest that traditional Zulu healing may incorporate some level of psi functioning. The authors recommend that similar research be carried out with other indigenous groups from altogether different cultures.

Lumsden-Cook, J.J., Thwala, J. & Edwards, S.D. (2006) The effects of traditional Zulu healing upon a Random Event Generator. Journal of the Society for Psychical Research, 70(3), 129-137

Research Summary: Experimenter Effects in Laboratory Tests of ESP and PK Using a Common Protocol

In the latest of a series of studies addressing the question of whether extra sensory perception (ESP) and psychokinesis (PK) are sufficiently distinct to merit separate terms, researchers from the University of Northampton and the University of Edinburgh, UK tested for both kinds of psi functioning using a common protocol, while also looking for evidence of experimenter effects.

Forty participants completed a computer-based greyhound racing game. Races occurred in blocks of twelve, and each participant completed two such blocks. One block of races was presented to the participants as an ESP task, while the other was presented as a PK task. However, unbeknownst to the participants, each block contained equal numbers of ESP and PK races in a random order.

Chris A. Roe and Russell Davey each served as an experimenter for half of the sessions, and after briefing each participant, rated the interaction for warmth, spontaneity, and positivity. The authors predicted that the sessions facilitated by Roe would be more successful because of his higher degree of experience in working with research participants and overall sense of 'ownership' of the project.

Overall, the performance of the participants on the ESP and PK games was better than what would be expected by chance alone, but not to a statistically significantly degree. However, for those greyhound races in which the ESP task was disguised, the performance of the participants was significant. As predicted, participants who had been briefed by Roe performed better than those briefed by Davey, and significantly so for the disguised ESP tasks.

Roe, C.A., Davey, R., & Stevens, P. (2006). Experimenter effects in laboratory tests of ESP and PK using a common protocol. Journal of Scientific Exploration, 20, 239-253.